Higher levels of individual health literacy have been associated with better health outcomes, greater medication adherence and improved self-management of chronic conditions. Hence, higher health literacy levels are expected to be indirectly associated with lower healthcare costs. The aim of this review is to identify and synthesise available studies on the relationship between individual health literacy and healthcare costs.

Systematic review with qualitative evidence synthesis.

MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection and CINAHL were searched up to 7 March 2025.

We considered only studies that investigated and quantified the relationship between individual health literacy and healthcare costs sustained by individuals, insurance companies or health providers.

Article screening and data extraction were performed by two authors independently. We critically appraised the identified study by using the AXIS checklist and evaluated the methodology adopted for cost analysis. Finally, we performed a qualitative synthesis of the study results.

Of a total of 5801 articles identified, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria. Almost half of the studies were conducted in the USA and about one-third in European countries. The included studies showed fair average quality and great heterogeneity in health literacy measures and cost analyses. The analyses considered general medical, treatment-related, inpatient, outpatient and emergency costs, out-of-pocket expenses and financial hardship. Fifteen studies reported statistically significant results, estimating the association between health literacy and costs or evaluating the difference in costs incurred by different health literacy subgroups. All study results supported the hypothesised negative association between health literacy levels and healthcare costs.

Individual health literacy was found to be negatively associated with a range of healthcare costs, although the supporting evidence was not always robust. Interventions aimed at containing healthcare expenditure should consider this association, while further research is needed to define its nature.

The review has been registered in the PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews (registration code CRD42023435502).

This study aims at documenting the frequency of reported abuse, stigma and discrimination and exploring the perspectives for improving the quality of maternal-newborn care (QMNC) of migrant mothers’ reporting abuse, stigma or discrimination.

Mixed methods multicentre cross-sectional study.

All maternal facilities (tertiary and secondary levels of care, n=9) from Friuli-Venezia Giulia region, Northeast Italy, between November 2019 and January 2022 in Northeast Italy.

874 migrant and 3968 non-migrant women answering a validated WHO Standard-based questionnaire after birth.

Frequency of reported abuse, stigma and discrimination during facility-based childbirth was calculated and compared with those of non-migrant mothers. Thematic analysis was conducted on eight open questions, using WHO Standards as a framework for the analysis.

Among migrant women, 84 (9.6%) reported some type of abuse, stigma and discrimination, a frequency similar to non-migrant women (9.8%, p=0.880). The most frequently reported was verbal abuse (87.7%), followed by stigma and discrimination (15.1%). Most women (86.9%) provided at least one comment, with a frequency comparable to non-migrant women (p=0.076). Among a total of 327 comments, 104 (31.8%) were practical suggestions for improving QMNC. Experience of care was the domain with the highest frequency both of negative (64.9% of negative comments) and positive comments (51.7% of positive comments) and with the highest frequency of suggestions for improving QMNC (52.9% of suggestions). Overall, suggestions mainly focused on strengthening healthcare professionals’ communication skills, allowing companionship during childbirth, increasing healthcare professionals’ availability and timely support.

This study shows that both migrant and non-migrant mothers are exposed to abuse, stigma and discrimination during childbirth, and that both are willing to provide practical suggestions, which should be used for planning actions to improve QMNC.