PLOS ONE Medicine&Health

The dynamics of loneliness: A longitudinal exploration of transitions in Japan across the COVID-19 period, 2020–2024

by Jargalmaa Amarsanaa, Trinh Xuan Thi Nguyen, Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan, Yoshihiko Kadoya

Background

Concerns about increased loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic have been widely reported. However, long-term trajectories of loneliness remain insufficiently described.

Objective

To examine annual trends and five-year transition patterns of loneliness in Japan from 2020 to 2024 using data from a nationwide online panel.

Methods

We analyzed data from 1,673 adults who participated in all five annual survey waves from 2020 to 2024 and had complete information on the variables used in the analysis. Loneliness was measured using the three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate annual prevalence and five-year transition patterns. Sensitivity analyses were conducted using a stricter loneliness threshold.

Results

The prevalence of loneliness peaked in 2021, declined in 2022, and remained relatively stable from 2022 to 2024. Most respondents demonstrated stable trajectories over five years, either consistently reporting loneliness or consistently not reporting loneliness. A smaller proportion exhibited transient loneliness during the pandemic period. Under the stricter loneliness threshold, the 2021 peak and the predominance of stable over transitional sequences were preserved, although the ranking of specific sequences changed.

Conclusions

Among respondents retained in this five-wave online panel, loneliness prevalence peaked in 2021, declined in 2022, and remained relatively stable from 2022 to 2024. Stable trajectories were more common than transitional trajectories. These findings provide descriptive evidence on long-term loneliness patterns but should not be interpreted as nationally representative prevalence estimates.